If the angles around the on-axis angle have a similarly smooth response, then it isn’t as critical that the speaker is listened to with ears at the same level. Diagonal view of a waterfall plot ...

CASTER. Understanding steering axis inclination makes it easier to understand caster, since they both have somewhat the same effect. Caster is the angle formed by a line through the ball joint ...

Now, the dot product of N and (0,0,1) should be the cosine of the angle between the two vectors. Formulas for both the dot and cross product of 3d vectors are easily found.

The preoperative radiograph (left) of a 64-year-old male patient showed a mechanical axis angle of 169º. The femoral valgus angle, the measured angle between the femoral and mechanical axis was 6º.

Angle alpha is the difference between the center of the limbus and the visual axis (Figure 1). Figure 1. Patient with high angle alpha (LSDist = angle alpha, 0.75 mm).